Reading Comprehension

Psychology

Medium

Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings. Generally, the victims of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression. Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent. Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger. Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury. For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject. The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.). A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus. The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed. The first variable is the aggressor him/herself. The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur. The third variable is the target or victim of aggression.

Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts. At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors. Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us toa variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self-directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges). Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison toother species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism. It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars. Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies. For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals. Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of nonviolent crimes. Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women. One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women.

All of the following statements can be seen as logically implied by the arguments of the passage EXCEPT:

if the alleged aggressive act is not sought to be avoided, it cannot really be considered aggression

Freud's theory of aggression proposes that aggression results from the suppression of aggressive urges.

Freudian theory of suicide as self-inflicted aggression implies that an aggressive act need not be sought to be avoided in order for it to be considered aggression.

a common theory of aggression is that it is the result of an abnormally low neural regulation of testosterone.

✅ Correct Option: 4

From passage: "Generally, the victims of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression."

From passage: "humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses" and separately "the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors"

The passage talks about two separate biological factors -> low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses AND testosterone effects. It never connects them as "low neural regulation of testosterone."

🟢 Option 1 -> directly supported -> passage clearly states victims must wish to avoid behavior for it to be true aggression

🟢 Option 2 -> supported -> Freud mentions mental illness from "unhealthy suppression of aggressive urges"

🟢 Option 3 -> logically implied -> if suicide is self-directed aggression (Freud's view), then victim (yourself) might not seek to avoid it, yet it's still aggression -> creates exception to general rule

🔴 Option 4 -> misrepresents passage -> combines two separate ideas incorrectly. Passage mentions "low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses" and "testosterone effects" as different factors, not "low neural regulation OF testosterone"

The passage never says low neural regulation controls testosterone -> it treats neural inhibition and testosterone as separate biological influences on aggression.

Question 16

The author identifies three essential factors according to which theories of aggression are most commonly categorized. Which of the following options is closest to the factors identified by the author?

Question 17

The author discusses all of the following arguments in the passage EXCEPT that:

Question 18

"An enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject." Which one of the following best explicates the larger point being made by the author here?

All of the following statements can be seen as logically implied by the arguments of the passage EXCEPT:

Solution

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